This paper will look at the
physical requirements of. Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) is an ancient sport, which
goes by many names. It is sometimes referred to as Pankration, Freestyle
Fighting, or Submission Fighting. As the last two names suggest, it is a combat
sport that combines the elements of several martial arts. There are several
different rule formats that fighters can compete under, and because the rebirth
of this sport is still an ongoing process these rules are always subject to
change. Each promoter has different rules for each event. These rule changes
are usually quite minor, and there are several common rules that are always
present. Basically Mixed Martial Arts combines several combat sports, the three
biggest influences on Mixed Martial Arts have been Wrestling, Muay Thai
Kickboxing, and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu. Mixed Martial Arts is a one on one combat
sport that takes place in a boxing style ring or octagon shaped cage (plastic
mesh fencing surrounds a wrestling mat). When discussing the rules of Mixed
Martial Arts it is easier to discus what is NOT allowed. The following
activities are typically banned in competition, virtually anything else is
legal:
Fights can be won the
following ways:
Although it may seem that there
are countless ways to win an MMA fight, history dictates that fights are most
often won with a combination of wresting skills, submission skills and stand-up
fighting skills. The physical requirements for Mixed Martial Arts typically
mirror the requirements for wrestling. Because the sport of Mixed Martial Arts
is so new (the sport is probably one of the oldest in the world, but its
rebirth is new), much of the resources used to research the requirements will
come from wrestling sources. The author of this paper has studied the sport of Mixed
Martial Arts very extensively through personal observation & research and
feels that the base physical requirements needed by a wrestler are almost
identical to that of a Submission Fighter. It is estimated that 95% of Mixed
Martial Arts matches are won with wrestling skills that have had striking and
submissions incorporated into them. Virtually any ground oriented combat sports
(Jiu-Jitsu, Judo, Freestyle Wrestling, Greco-Roman Wrestling) are going to need
similar bases with respect to physical conditioning.
Unlike many other sports such
as Tennis, & Golf, Mixed Martial Arts is a sport that calls upon your
entire body to succeed. Ken Shamrock, one of
Every
part of a Submission Fighter’s body has to be in tune. He needs superb upper
body strength for striking and grappling. Submission Fighters need extra power
because they often go for control and submission holds on an opponent’s legs,
which are bigger, stronger, and more difficult to control than arms. You have
to be able to grip, lock, and load a sizeable limb whose owner is not always
eager to go along with the program. While this takes muscle strength, you also
need stamina….You have to be ready, ready for anything (1998).
According to the Canadian
Amateur Wrestling association, flexibility training is a critical component of
any successful wrestling program (1986). Mixed Martial Arts is no different, if
not even more important. Flexibility training reduces injury potential while
executing the ballistic body movements of Mixed Martial Arts. In addition to
the ground movement flexibility requirements, the threat of submission holds
designed to put joints out of their natural range of motion requires superb
flexibility. Flexibility in the joints can provide a Submission Fighter with an
extra second to attempt a submission escape; this could mean the difference
between a win and a loss. Dan Gable, one of the most respected wrestling
coaches in the world states that flexibility, although often overlooked, is a
‘powerful bonus to any wrestler’ (1999). Gable argues that one of the hardest
wrestlers to beat are the ones with great flexibility, and that flexibility
rates right along side the important ingredients if a successful wrestler
(1999). Because of the nature of Mixed Martial Arts no distinction is made
between upper body & lower body flexibility. Successful fighters need
flexibility from top to bottom.
Upper Body
As mentioned in the
introduction by Ken Shamrock, upper body strength is extremely important for
success as a Submission Fighter (1998). In Mixed Martial Arts upper body
strength is needed for striking, grappling, and submission holds. Dan Gable
states “Strength is another area that is vital for success” (1999).
Core
According to Ken Shamrock “a
strong abdomen is absolutely critical to one’s ability to fight long &
hard” (1998). The abdomen is basically the hinge that connects the upper &
lower body. You need the base of your abdomen to maintain both upper and lower
body strength. If your abdominal strength were to fail, it wouldn’t matter how
strong your legs and arms were.
Lower Body
Legs provide Submission
Fighters with their mobility. Leg Strength is extremely important for
takedowns, kicks, and opponent control. In Ken Shamrock’s conditioning program
for his fighters, lower leg strength is the first thing he stresses with his
students (1999). Strong legs put more power in kicks, and provide the strength
needed to shoot in and take an opponent down to the mat. Once on the mat, legs
provide the power on the ground to turn and control an opponent (Shamrock, 1998).
Upper Body
Upper body endurance can be
extremely important or not as important depending on the fighter’s strategy.
The fighter who relies on striking power to win fights requires more upper body
endurance. These fighters tend to have more skill standing up and thus must
have the endurance to last should they succeed in maintaining a stand-up fight.
For the fighter who relies on more of a ground fighting/wrestling strategy, the
upper body endurance is not as important as some of the other areas. However,
as noted in the rating, this cannot be overlooked. A stand-up fighter with a
solid takedown defense can maintain a stand-up fight, and if the ground fighter
is incapable of defending himself while standing due to fatigue its ‘lights
out’.
Core
Core muscle endurance is a
critical component in Mixed Martial Arts. As mentioned in the core strength section
above, the core acts as the hinge to connect the upper and lower bodies, it
also acts as a stabilizing foundation from which all actions originate. Whether
the fighter is boxing, wrestling, or taking hits, the abdomen needs to be
calloused to the exhaustive work it will most definitely endure in a fight.
Lower Body
Just as critical as the core,
the lower legs also act as a foundation for other activities, even if the fight
goes to the ground, the legs will be a prime source of movement and opponent
control. Ken Shamrock states that “your legs give you the stamina to outlast
the man you are fighting. In Mixed Martial Arts your legs are your foundation.
If you don’t have a strong foundation, the house is shaky” (1999). Ken
Shamrocks fighters reportedly perform over 500 squats in a row daily (Shamrock,
1999).
According t the Canadian
Amateur Wrestling Associating, the aerobic system is considered the basis of
all athletic conditioning (1987). The association argues that aerobic fitness
provides a base to attain higher levels in all other sport specific activities,
allowing the athlete to achieve higher levels of performance. A highly
developed aerobic system also puts less strain on the anaerobic system during a
fight due to the increased efficiency of the cardiovascular system. More fights
are lost in the final minutes of the late rounds due to conditioning than any
other factors (Gable, 1999). As Frank Shamrock always says “Fatigue makes
cowards out of men”. Losses due to a poorly conditioned aerobic system are so
common that the fight world has created a name for it, “gassing out”. Referring
to the fighter running out of energy in the middle of a fight and subsequently
losing. In the fight world, losing a fight to a better opponent is noble,
however, losing a fight because you got tired is simply a lack of preparation
and inadequate conditioning.
If we estimate that aerobic
conditioning makes up about 30% of
ground fighting (Greenberg, 2000), then anaerobic conditioning must
comprise the remaining 70%. For Mixed Martial Arts these percentages can easily
vary from match to match. It is safe to
say that Mixed Martial Arts is primarily an anaerobic sport. Explosiveness is
constant. Remember, the point if this sport is to inflict or threaten damage to
your opponent. Athletes have to be fast and furious to avoid punishment. In the
early days of Mixed Martial Arts, ground fighters used stalling techniques to
tire opponents and then execute a submission hold on their exhausted opponent.
That was before the onset of time limits and fighters that trained specifically
for Mixed Martial Arts. The new sport is now faster than ever before. Like in a
boxing match, fighters are setting up submissions with submissions and
constantly exploding at their opponent to create openings to finish fights. The
sport is anaerobically exhausting. Most newcomers to the sport are completely
finished within 2 minutes of a match. Fighters are transitioning from arm bar
attempts (designed to hyperextend the elbow), to knock out punches, from knock
out punches to explosive double leg takedowns, then trying to knee you in the
head. The sport requires an athlete to explode repeatedly throughout the fight.
Because the sport is weight
class driven body composition is an important factor. Although the weight
classes are not as tight as they are in wrestling & boxing, they do exist.
In the evolutionary stages of the sport in the early 1990’s there were no
weight classes, but the increasing skill of fighters has forced all
organizations to implement weight classes. A low body fat (<15%) is desired.
If a fighter can enter his respective weight class at the top of the bracket
with a high lean body mass he will be more efficient than a comparable fighter
with a high fat mass. Muscle produces power, whereas fat is only a fuel source
that provides a small amount of protection. Muscle provides protection and
power.
The only movement
restrictions in Mixed Martial Arts are that you stay within the boundary of the
ring. You need to be able to move within the ring and change direction as the
fight progresses, however, because of the small space within which the fight
occurs, the movement of the body is small. Also, the defensive strategy of
running from your opponent does not go over well with the judges, typically
fighters square off and attack each other. Agility is important but it is not
as critical as some of the other skill related components.
Importance Rating: 4
Dynamic balance is very
important, particularly in the ground-fighting realm of Mixed Martial Arts. You
need to have good feeling for your body in space as you execute throwing moves
and evade moves. A well-balanced fighter is able to more aptly centre his body
weight on his opponent to increase the workload of the downed opponent.
Importance Rating: 4.75
Coordination, particularly
for the Submission Fighter is a very important aspect of a successful fighter.
Top level Submission Fighters have an extremely large arsenal of submission
holds in their head. These moves need to be smoothly applied during a fight
flawlessly. Accuracy is also very important. In ground fighting and submission
holds, the difference of an inch can often be all that is needed for a fight
ending submission attempt to succeed or fail. These techniques need to be
executed with precision, particularly in the fighters of today as the education
of each fighter’s submission holds is increased.
Importance Rating: 4.75
Reaction Time is important in
Mixed Martial Arts for several reasons. When an opponent shoots in to take a
fighter to the ground he has to sprawl to avoid ending up in the bottom
position. When an opponent throws a powerful punch the fighter has to react
& avoid it. When a submission lock is attempted the fighter only has a
split second to secure the hold, and the opponent has only a second to react to
the attempt. Responding to the countless and relentless stimuli of a full
contact fight is a critical component for success in the sport of Mixed Martial
Arts.
Importance Rating: 5
The ability to move in a
short period of tine is definitely a critical component of Mixed Martial Arts.
Takedown attempts need to be fast. Punching & kicking needs to be lightning
fast to be effective. In Mixed Martial Arts your opponent is ready and prepared
to be hit, this means that you have to be quick enough to make contact before
they have an opportunity to react.
Importance Rating: 5
The Power component of Mixed
Martial Arts combines the elements of speed & strength. A quick look at any
Mixed Martial Arts competition and you would see the incredible muscle mass of
the fighters. The successful fighters are the ones that can translate their
well developed strength into highly explosive movements, whether it be a knock
out punch or an explosive takedown. If a fighter cannot put his strength to
work in the fast action of a fight his muscle is of little use if his opponent
can.
Based on the aforementioned
requirements for success in Mixed Martial Arts, a brief summary of tests that
could be used to evaluate fighters has been included. Some of these tests
include the following:
Bench Press Test
The bench press test is a
valid way of measuring arm extension in a push movement. This motion is used in
punching, and in wrestling to control opponents either offensively or
defensively. Quite simply the participant lies in the supine position on a
bench and performs a barbell bench press. The highest weight lifted is recorded
The score are calculated by dividing the participants body weight into any
additional weight successfully completed in the test (Johnson & Nelson,
1979).
Squat Test
The Squat Test can be used to
measure absolute strength in the lower limbs (Johnson & Nelson, 1979). Leg
strength is important to evaluate because the lower leg strength need for
takedowns & leg contact during a submission fight. The test is performed by
the participant executing an Olympic Style squat and recording the maximum
weight successfully lifted.
Dynamic Curl-up Test
The Curl-Up test is a valid
test for Mixed Martial Arts. As discussed earlier, core muscle endurance is a
very critical component of a successful Submission Fighter and the curl-up test
is a reliable mechanism of measure (Corbin, Lindsay, & Welk, 2000).
Ninety-Degree Push-up Test
Upper body muscle endurance
is important for the Submission Fighter for activities such as boxing and
ground fighting. The Ninety Degree push up is a reliable method of evaluating
upper body muscle endurance. However, the scale might need to be adjusted. Any
Submission Fighter would easily reach the high performance level.
Aerobic
2400 metre Run
A timed 2400 m run reliably
measures aerobic cardiovascular fitness. This test is easy to administer and
requires only a measured track & a stopwatch. The quicker the athlete runs
2400m, the better the aerobic fitness. A time of 7.5 – 8 minutes indicates an
excellent score.
Anaerobic
200m Sprint Test
A timed 200m sprint will
evaluate the anaerobic abilities of a Submission Fighter. The quicker the time,
the better the anaerobic fitness. This test gives the evaluator insight into
the athlete’s speed. A 200m sprint is
timed and recorded, the quicker the time, the better the athletes’ anaerobic
fitness.
Agility
Burpee Test or Squat Thrust
Test
The Burpee Test measures the
rapidity by which body position can be changed. This is a great test to measure
a critical component of Mixed Martial Arts, the ability to change body position
up & down, and the ‘sprawl’. The test is performed by executing a burpee,
the burpee is evaluated in a 10 second duration, with points being deducted for
improper technique.
Speed
30m Sprint Test
The 30 metre sprint tests an
athletes leg speed. This is great test for a Submission Fighter given the
anaerobic demands of the sport and the necessity for explosively fast lower leg
movement (e.g.,: takedowns, ground movement, leg kicks). The athlete runs as
fast as possible for 30 metes and the time is recorded, the quicker the time
the better the athletes speed.
Power
Vertical Jump Test
Explosive leg power is key in
Mixed Martial Arts. If your opponent is a kick boxer by trade and is attempting
to take your head off with a flying spin kick, your ability to ‘shoot in’ and
take him off his feet can be critical. The Vertical Jump Test is a good measure
of explosive leg power, and is very easy to perform. The athlete’s vertical
reach is measured; a vertical jump is performed as the athlete reaches as high
as possible. The distance is the difference between the reach height and the
jump height.
The target zone principle is
based on the premise that each aspect of fitness (e.g. Cardiovascular
Conditioning, & Strength) has its own minimum threshold of training, and
upper limit of diminishing margin of return. For example in Mixed Martial Arts,
the anaerobic energy system needs to be trained, in order to have a training
effect on the anaerobic system we must get the athletes heart rate beyond the
90% MHR, and this type of training need to be performed at least 3 days per
week. Anything below this will not improve anaerobic fitness. If the athlete
trained the anaerobic energy system 6 days a week, it could potentially have a
negative effect and cause damage due to over training. Thus the target-training
zone for a Fighter to train their anaerobic system would lie between 3 & 4
days a week with a heart rate between 90-100% of their maximum.
The overload principle states
that in order to improve ones level of fitness an individual must work at a
level beyond what they are normally accustomed to. For example in Mixed Martial
Arts if an athlete wanted to increase the flexibility in their Hamstrings, they
would have to increase the range of motion typically executed when stretching
in addition to performing the stretch more regularly. By overloading the
stretch normally encountered by the muscle it will physiologically adapt to its
new demand and a subsequent increase in flexibility will result.
In order to make fitness
improvements in specific areas, training program design must specifically
target the areas identified for improvement. For example if one of a Submission
Fighter’s goals was to increase the speed of his punches, sprint training to
increase his leg speed, would not target the area identified in his goals.
Training exercises such as Plyometric Push-ups or Heavy Bag sprinting, that
targeted the punching movements with speed exercises would be using the
Specificity Principle to scientifically achieve training improvements.
Training must use scientific
approach that gradually introduces the athlete to greater demands. By gradually
increasing the frequency, intensity, and duration of exercise, we minimize
injuries while safely maximizing the gains made towards the achievement of the
athlete’s goals. For example, a Submission Fighter that wanted to increase his
stamina while fighting could begin by wrestling under medium resistance for 5
minute rounds, twice a week, for 3 weeks, once this became easier to maintain
we could increase the length of the round to 7 minutes, then 9 minutes, and so
one. By gradually increasing the length of the round, or frequency per week, or
intensity of the exercise we can insure that gains are being made and our
athlete is minimizing the risks of injury associated with over training.
The F.I.T.T. Principle refers
to the Frequency (how often), Intensity (how hard), Time (How Long), and Type
(What Exercise). These factors can be manipulated to achieve the desired
training goals. For example, the Submission Fighter that wanted to increase his
Fitness conditioning could follow the following work schedule:
Cardio Fitness
Muscle Fitness Flexibility Anaerobic
Week
|
F |
I |
T |
F |
I |
T
|
F |
I |
T |
F |
I |
T |
|
1-4 |
3x/wk |
70% MHR = 137 bpm |
25 min. |
3x/wk |
75% 1RM |
2sets 12 reps
45sec rest |
4-6 x/wk. |
Na |
2 sets 15on 15off |
3x/ wk |
85% MHR |
5-2 min rds. |
|
4-8 |
4x/wk |
75% MHR = 147 bpm |
30 min. |
3x/wk |
80% 1RM |
2sets 10 reps 60sec rest |
4-6 x/wk |
Na |
2 sets 20on 20off |
3x/ wk |
95% MHR |
5-4 min rds. |
|
8-12 |
5x/wk |
80% MHR = 156 bpm |
35 min. |
3x/wk |
85% 1RM |
3sets 8 reps 90sec rest. |
4-6 x/wk |
Na |
3 sets 20on 20off |
3x/ wk |
100% MHR |
5-5 min rrds. |
|
12-16 |
5x/wk |
85% MHR = 167 bpm |
40 min. |
3x/wk |
90% 1RM |
4sets 6 reps 120 sec rest |
4-6 x/wk |
Na |
3 sets 25 on 25off |
3x/ wk |
100% MHR |
5-7 min rds |
According to Micah Nathan,
NSCA Certified Strength & Conditioning Specialist & Trainer for UFC
Middle Weight Mixed Martial Arts Champion, Frank Shamrock, Mixed Martial Arts
is a sport that involves both a controlled pace and explosive speed &
power. Because of this unique combination, proper endurance training is
essential. Micah states that it is not just enough to wrestle or spar for
conditioning. The athlete must maintain the heart rate at the desired levels to
train either aerobically or anaerobically. Mixed Martial Arts requires
both systems for sustained energy and the ability to move with explosive speed
& power. Mixed Martial Arts, like wrestling, is primarily an anaerobic
sport, however by increasing the conditioning of the aerobic system we put less
stress on the anaerobic system, allowing higher levels of performance to be
achieved (Canadian Amateur Wrestling Association, 1987).
The following cardiovascular
training activities are good examples of how a Submission Fighter could improve
their cardiovascular system:
Aerobic activity involves the
energy system where the heart rate is maintained at a level that allows the
utilization of oxygen in its metabolism of glycogen (the stored form of carbohydrates).
Typically this involves activities that maintain the heart rate at
approximately 55-90% of the athlete’s maximum heart rate. All cardiovascular
activities should maintain the heart rate at the appropriate levels for at
least 20 minutes and progressively increase in duration. These activities
should be performed at least 3 times per week to a maximum of 6 days per week,
to allow for recovery. A solid aerobic base will be extremely advantageous for
the high intensity training required from a Submission Fighter. Some effective
activities for Submission Fighters to increase their aerobic conditioning are:
Jumping Rope is a great way
for the Submission Fighter to develop their aerobic condition while
simultaneously improving their foot speed. Skipping should be maintained at a
moderate level that maintains the heart rate within the 50-90% MHR zone.
These forms of aerobic
training provide the Submission Fighter with a variety of activities that can
be performed at any time with a minimal amount of equipment & skill
required.
Mixed Martial Arts Circuit
Training
In the combative area, a
series of stations can be set-up, with a different sport movement being
performed at each station. Here is an example of a Basic Mixed Martial Arts
Aerobic Circuit:
Station 1 – Leap Frog Drill
Station 2 – Jump Squats
Station 3 – jumping Jacks
Station 4 – Shadow Boxing
Station 5 – Burpees
Station 6 – Rest &
Hydration
Station 7 - Stair Climbing
Station 8 – Grizzly Bear Lunges
Station 10 – Star Bursts
Submission Fighters need to
know how to Box. Working out on a heavy bag is great way to work on boxing
skills while training aerobically. Fighters can freestyle on the bag using
punching & kicking combination for 5-minute rounds with a 1-minute rest
period for 5 rounds. Gradually increase the length of the rounds and/or the
number of rounds.
Fighters can develop their
aerobic system and practice wrestling by working with a partner and wrestling
with medium resistance. This involves flowing with your partner, giving up
submission holds, escaping the holds, changing positions, and reversing your
opponent. The key here is that the wrestlers do not get too involved and begin
to wrestle with full resistance. A moderate pace should be maintained. Start
with 2, 10-minute rounds, and work up to 4, 10-minute rounds, switching
partners each round, to keep it interesting.
Anaerobic conditioning refers
to the maximal amount of energy that can be produced in the first 30-90 seconds
of an all out effort. The anaerobic system is utilized when the heart rate
reaches levels beyond 90% MHR. At this point oxygen is no longer utilized in
the metabolism of energy (Canadian Amateur Coaching Association, 1987). Lactic
Acid is produced during the energy metabolism; this acid is a major limiting
factor while training anaerobically. The acid causes the muscles to fatigue.
Anaerobic training trains the muscles to tolerate and eliminate these high
levels of lactic acid, increasing the fighter’s ability to maintain high
intensity activity. In Mixed Martial Arts, an ability to maintain these
explosive bursts of activity are paramount for success. The optimal way to
train the anaerobic system is with high intensity intervals; with adequate
amounts of rest interspersed between the high intensity bursts. This style of
training should elevate the heart rate to near 100% MHR (Maximal Effort) and
use a work to rest ratio of 1:1 to 1:5 (Canadian amateur Wrestling Association,
1987). The rest periods should be spent moving slowly, not simply laying down
or standing still. By moving slowly the body will rid itself f the lactic acid
that had accumulated. Lactic Acid inhibits maximum performance. Anaerobic
training activities should be performed at least 3 times per week, to a maximum
of 4 times per week. Gradually increase the number of intervals and decrease
the rest time (to a minimum work to rest ratio of 1:1). Some activities that
will help the Submission Fighter train the anaerobic system include:
Sprinting Interval Training
Sprinting interval training
is an extremely efficient way of developing anaerobic conditioning in a
Submission Fighter. This can be executed in a variety of ways. Typically
athletes would perform interval training on a track or a field, and they would
sprint as hard as they can for 30 seconds, and then take a minute rest (2:1
rest to work ratio). This could be performed for at least 10 times. The
duration of the sprint can be gradually increased to a max of 90 seconds, with
a subsequent increase in the resting time to maintain the 2:1 ratio. As
athletes progress a 1:1 ratio could be attempted. Another easy way for athletes
to train this way on their own time is to incorporate sprinting sessions into
their aerobic activities. So if an athlete jogs he can sprint for a short
distance while maintaining a run while recovering. A timer can be used or
telephone poles also make a great marker (e.g., sprint for 3 telephone poles,
run for 8).
Heavy Bag Sprint Intervals
Another very effective method
for training anaerobically that incorporates some boxing practice is to have
athletes execute punching sprints on a heavy bag. This drill can be executed
with partner. One partner holds the bag steady while the other punches the bag
repeatedly for 30 seconds, as fast as possible. Once the 30 seconds is up they
switch roles. Variations can be added by incorporating kicking sprints. These
Heavy Bag Sprints are extremely exhausting. A variation of this exercise is to
incorporate 20 second punching or kicking sprints into a freestyle heavy bag
round. So as the athletes are performing their heavy bag work, they have to
punch as fast and as they can when the whistle is blown and continue until it is
blown again 20 seconds later. This drill also has a positive effect on speed
development
High Intensity Skipping
Sprints
This method is fairly self
explanatory, basically its skipping with a jump rope but going very fast and
very high for short burst and adequate rest (i.e. 2:1 rest to work ratio). Not
only does this build the anaerobic capacity of the athlete, but also helps with
coordination, power, & speed.
Anaerobic Circuit Training
A great way to train the
anaerobic system and incorporate the entire body is to design anaerobic
circuits. Because Mixed Martial Arts demands movement from the body in its
entirety these circuits are an excellent ‘all in one’ form of anaerobic
training. Basically a series of exercises are performed in short bursts in succession
with a brief rest period in between. For example:
High Intensity Full
Resistance Free Flow Wrestling
This exercise is obviously
very sport specific. Athletes get in partners and wrestle under full resistance
for a 1-minute round. No stalling is allowed, and if a submission hold is
executed, the partner immediately lets go of it and the sparring continues.
Participants are encouraged to maintain movement, and refrain from positions
that allow either participant to rest. Once the round is complete a 1–minute rest
is provided while partners are switched.
References
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Level 1 Coaching Certification.
Canadian Amateur Wrestling Association. (1987). Wrestling:
Level 2 Coaching Certification.
Canadian Amateur Wrestling Association. (1987). Wrestling:
Level 3 Coaching Certification.
Corbin, C.B., Lindsey, R., Welk, G. (2000). Concepts of
Physical Fitness (10th Ed.).
Gable, D. (1999). Coaching Wrestling Successfully.
Greenberg, J.S., Dintiman, G.B., Oakes, B.M., Kossuth, J.D.,
Morrow, D. (2000) Physical Fitness & Wellness (Canadian Edition)
Jesse, J. (1974). Wrestling: Physical Conditioning
Encyclopedia.
Johnson, D.A. (1991). Wrestling Drill Book.
Martell, W.A. (1993). Greco-Roman Wrestling.
Shamrock, K. (1998). Inside the Lion’s Den: The life &
Mixed Martial Arts system of Ken Shamrock.